"This essay, written in the immediate aftermath of Donald Trump’s election to the Presidency of the United States in November 2006, offers an account of how race was invented, and how it come to be foundational to the modern world. In South Africa that moment followed closely after the emerge of the student movement that swept the country in 2015. The student movement was, in part, inspired by the emergence of the Black Lives Matter movement in the US in 2014. Written out of this conjuncture the essay begins with two letters written by Paul the Apostle in which Christianity first acquires a universal address. The essay shows that in time the universal address of the new religion came to exclude people who were not Christians from the count of the human. This became explicit around a thousand years later when Pope Urban II authorised the First Crusade. In 1492 planetary history was split in to two. Muhammad XII of Granada conceded defeat to Isabella and Ferdinand, the Catholic monarchs of Portugal and Spain, who went on to expel the Jews from the territory under their control. Europe became a Christian project. In the same year Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean and Europe also became an imperial project with a planetary reach. The origins of the racial ideology can be seen in this period, in which ideas about religion came to be entangled with fantastical ideas about the imagined purity of blood. But it was in the English colony of Virginia in the seventeenth century that the legitimation for the exclusion from the count of the human began to move from claims made in the name of religion to claims made in the name of science. This is the point at which modern racism, rooted in the appearance of the body, began to cast its malignant shadow across the planet. The essay argues that the struggle to put an end to the epoch of world history that opened in 1492 will require new ideas, and new practices. It follows the Caribbean tradition that runs from Aimé Césaire to Frantz Fanon and Sylvia Wynter in affirming the need for a counter-humanism, a radical humanism, a humanism that, in Césaire’s famous phrases, is “made to the measure of the world”. It also argues, following Fanon and Wynter, that building the political forces required to achieve radical changes requires university trained intellectuals to undertake a shift in the ground of reason towards the lived experience and struggles of people rendered, in Wynter’s phrase, as ‘pariahs outside of the new order’."--